arkers of exposure in 24-h urine and first-morning urine samples, respectively. OTA was detected in 27 of first-morning urine samples, respectively, confirming the exposure with the PortugueseMolecules 2022, 27,6 ofpopulation to this mycotoxin. The concentrations determined in first-morning urine samples ranged in between 710 ng L-1 . OT was not detected. It should be pointed out that the typical OTA levels determined within this study had been 3- to 10-fold reduced than those reported in other European nations, which is often justified by variations within the analytical strategies applied [59]. Taking into consideration this reported widespread occurrence, a current study [60] analyzed OTA exposure in youngsters among two and 13 years old. Though considered a more susceptible population, infant exposure to this mycotoxin had only been surveyed in 3 earlier research in Cameroon [61], Sierra Leone [62] and Belgium [63]. The initial survey that analyzed OTA in urine samples from Portuguese infants showed widespread OTA exposure. Certainly, in samples in the 85 healthy youngsters enrolled, the majority (92.94 ) have been discovered to be constructive, with up to 52 ng L-1 (114.45 ng g-1 of creatinine). Moreover, taking into account the imply OTA levels determined, the risk assessed ranged from ten to 194 , and had been hence of concern [60]. Adult occupational exposure to OTA also showed widespread contamination (80 ) by way of analyzed urine samples from Leishmania Inhibitor review workers from swine farms, despite the fact that with only a single sample greater than the limit of quantification [42]. Manage groups also showed widespread urine contamination (68 ), which suggests that inhalation inside the context of occupational exposure could also contribute, even though significantly less significantly, to exposure to OTA. Exposure assessments in an additional occupational setting (a fresh dough business) revealed that OTA was the second most prevalent mycotoxin (right after deoxynivalenol glucuronide), despite the fact that the handle group presented a higher frequency of contamination. In both operating and handle groups, OTA was beneath the limit of quantification [64].Table 2. The occurrence and levels of OTA (ng L-1 ) in distinct biological samples collected amongst the Portuguese population. Biomarker OTA OTA Matrix Urine Urine Sample Children (23 years old) Swine farm workers Manage group Fresh dough firm workers Manage group Waste management workers Control group Waste management workers Handle group All participants Porto Coimbra Lisboa Alentejo Basic adult population (Coimbra) Basic adult population Hemodialyzed patients from: -Coimbra Aveiro Basic adult population ATR Inhibitor review Common adult population Incidence ( ) 79/85 (92.94 ) 20/25 (80 ) 13/19 (68 ) 10/21 (48 ) 13/19 (68 ) 42/42 (one hundred ) 34/42 (81 ) 408/472 (86.4 ) 90/111 (81.1 ) 77/94 (81.9 ) 127/150 (85.three ) 113/117 (96.six ) 104/104 (one hundred ): 13/30 (43.three ) 50/50 (one hundred ) 45/45 (one hundred ) 42/60 (70 ) 27 Range (n.d.two) (n.d.00) LOQ LOQ LOQ (441047) (n.d.27) (n.d.22) (n.d.2) (n.d.9) (n.d.4) (n.d.22) (19060) (n.d.08) 120520 150030 (n.d.05) 710 Average SD 20 13 one hundred LOQ LOQ LOQ 1007 [55] 334 19 14 17 10 16 11 19 14 23 16 420 180 19 41 500 290 490 220 38 Reference [60] [42]OTAUrine[64]OTA R-OTABlood serum Blood serumOTAUrine[56]OTA OTA OTA OTA OTABlood serum Urine Blood serum Urine Urine[54] [58] [53] [57] [59]Molecules 2022, 27,7 of3.3. Fumonisins Fumonisins (FBs), mycotoxins with distinctive structurally related analogues, are predominantly created by Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum, which are present in maize an