Rly adolescence whereas skills associated with working memory continue to develop through adolescence. Coordination of each of these skills become increasingly refined and well coordinated through later adolescence as demonstrated by studies showing improvements in task performance through at least age 20. These refinements in executive functions are part of a critical stage of development when Peretinoin site levels of impulsive behaviors increase at a rapid rate, leading to an increased tendency for engagement in risk behaviors (Romer et al. 2011). The role of the PFC in impulse control and its late maturation suggest that the relatively high levels of risky behavior seen in adolescence may reflect immature prefrontal executive function (Romer et al. 2009, 2011; Steinberg 2008). Adult gambling studies have investigated whether executive cognitive functions are impaired in pathological gamblers compared to control participants. For example, Goudriaan et al. reported that pathological gamblers showed diminished performance on inhibition, time estimation, cognitive flexibility, and planning tasks compared to control participants (Goudriaan, et al. 2006), with Roca et al. reporting impairment in decision making, inhibitory control, memory, and verbal fluency (Roca et al. 2008). Cavedini et al. found that pathological gamblers exhibited Chloroquine (diphosphate)MedChemExpress Chloroquine (diphosphate) decision-making impairments similar to those of frontal lobe damaged patients (Brand et al. 2005; Cavedini et al. 2002). The executive cognitive function deficits observed in pathological gamblers are thought to reflect dysfunction in PFC circuitry (Brand et al. 2005; Goudriaan et al. 2006). Directionality of this relationship, however, has not been determined as few studies have compared executive cognitive functions in gamblers before pathological gambling is diagnosed. For this report, we examined executive cognitive functions in relation to gambling in a community sample of youth first assessed at ages 10?2 years. Our objectives were: 1) to identify trajectories of gambling behavior; 2) to examine executive cognitive functions (in particular: working memory, cognitive control, and reward processing) in relation to gambling trajectories; and 3) to identify associated problem behaviors. We hypothesized that: 1) early gamblers, identified in our community sample of youth, would have lower scores on measures of working memory, cognitive control, and reward processing, independent of other previously identified risk factors for gambling; and 2) early gamblers would have higher rates of other problem behaviors.NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript MethodsParticipantsParticipants were 387 youth, enrolled at ages 10?2 years in a longitudinal, multi-cohort study of risk behavior, impulsivity and executive cognitive functions. Seventy percent of the subjects attended seven Philadelphia schools where onsite enrollment occurred. The remaining 30 attended other Philadelphia area schools and were recruited through flyers distributed at schools and posted in local venues such as libraries. Parental consent andJ Gambl Stud. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 June 01.Betancourt et al.Pageyouth assent were obtained in accordance with the protocol approved by the IRB of The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. Youth were reimbursed for their time and travel.NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptGamblingThree hundred and eighty seven children were enrolled. Th.Rly adolescence whereas skills associated with working memory continue to develop through adolescence. Coordination of each of these skills become increasingly refined and well coordinated through later adolescence as demonstrated by studies showing improvements in task performance through at least age 20. These refinements in executive functions are part of a critical stage of development when levels of impulsive behaviors increase at a rapid rate, leading to an increased tendency for engagement in risk behaviors (Romer et al. 2011). The role of the PFC in impulse control and its late maturation suggest that the relatively high levels of risky behavior seen in adolescence may reflect immature prefrontal executive function (Romer et al. 2009, 2011; Steinberg 2008). Adult gambling studies have investigated whether executive cognitive functions are impaired in pathological gamblers compared to control participants. For example, Goudriaan et al. reported that pathological gamblers showed diminished performance on inhibition, time estimation, cognitive flexibility, and planning tasks compared to control participants (Goudriaan, et al. 2006), with Roca et al. reporting impairment in decision making, inhibitory control, memory, and verbal fluency (Roca et al. 2008). Cavedini et al. found that pathological gamblers exhibited decision-making impairments similar to those of frontal lobe damaged patients (Brand et al. 2005; Cavedini et al. 2002). The executive cognitive function deficits observed in pathological gamblers are thought to reflect dysfunction in PFC circuitry (Brand et al. 2005; Goudriaan et al. 2006). Directionality of this relationship, however, has not been determined as few studies have compared executive cognitive functions in gamblers before pathological gambling is diagnosed. For this report, we examined executive cognitive functions in relation to gambling in a community sample of youth first assessed at ages 10?2 years. Our objectives were: 1) to identify trajectories of gambling behavior; 2) to examine executive cognitive functions (in particular: working memory, cognitive control, and reward processing) in relation to gambling trajectories; and 3) to identify associated problem behaviors. We hypothesized that: 1) early gamblers, identified in our community sample of youth, would have lower scores on measures of working memory, cognitive control, and reward processing, independent of other previously identified risk factors for gambling; and 2) early gamblers would have higher rates of other problem behaviors.NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript MethodsParticipantsParticipants were 387 youth, enrolled at ages 10?2 years in a longitudinal, multi-cohort study of risk behavior, impulsivity and executive cognitive functions. Seventy percent of the subjects attended seven Philadelphia schools where onsite enrollment occurred. The remaining 30 attended other Philadelphia area schools and were recruited through flyers distributed at schools and posted in local venues such as libraries. Parental consent andJ Gambl Stud. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 June 01.Betancourt et al.Pageyouth assent were obtained in accordance with the protocol approved by the IRB of The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. Youth were reimbursed for their time and travel.NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptGamblingThree hundred and eighty seven children were enrolled. Th.