2013; Burns et al., 2013; Roberts et al., 2013). HNSCCs are particularly informative because some are HPV positive and others are HPV negative. Higher overall levels of APOBEC signature mutations are observed in HPV positive cancers (Henderson et al., 2014; Vieira et al., 2014). In addition, hotspots for APOBEC mutagenesis and oncogene activation occur in PIK3CA, which encodes the catalytic subunit of a phosphoinositide-3-kinase that is activated in large proportions of cervical and HNSCCs (Henderson et al., 2014). These hypermutations are most likely due to A3B, and possibly A3A, because these are the only family members induced by HPV infection (Vieira et al., 2014; Warren et al., 2015). Thus, it is tempting to speculate that cancer mutagenesis may be the result of collateral DNA damage of an antiviral response to HPV infection. DNA order HIV-1 integrase inhibitor 2 viruses that infect B cells also might be expected to be inhibited by AID since this family member is activated in the germinal centers to trigger adaptive responses to infection. In addition, AID can be activated in non-B-cells that normally lack AID expression by pathogen expression (Gourzi et al., 2006, 2007). Such viruses have been shown to inhibit AID function through mechanisms distinct from those described for retroviruses. EpsteinBarr virus (EBV) is a herpes virus (double-stranded DNA) that replicates in B cells. This virus antagonizes the effects of AID by upregulation of a host regulatory microRNA (miR-155) and the latency-associated protein EBNA2 (Tobollik et al., 2006). Kaposi’s sarcoma herpes virus (KSHV) also infects B cells (Mesri et al., 1996), and infection of tonsillar B cells upregulates AID (Bekerman et al., 2013). KSHV often maintains its genome in a latent state, which requires the expression of four proteins and 12 micro RNAs (Cai et al., 2005; Dittmer et al., 1998; Pfeffer et al., 2005; Samols et al., 2005). Latency prevents viral DNA replication and associated AID damage, but AID expression activates KSHV lytic replication and loss of infectivity (Bekerman et al., 2013). To antagonize AID, KSHV encodes two different miRs that bind to the 3 UTR of AID mRNA. Binding of viral miRs at several different sites is believed to block translation of AID and triggering of the innate immune response to KSHV (Bekerman et al., 2013). Not all DNA viruses have been shown to be susceptible to APOBEC-mediated restriction. Vaccinia virus does not appear to be inhibited by APOBEC family members, perhaps due to the sequestration of its replication complex in cytoplasmic bodies (Kremer et al., 2006). Therefore, DNA viruses may avoid APOBEC-mediated restriction by encoding an inhibitor,Abamectin B1a mechanism of action Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptVirology. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 May 01.Harris and DudleyPagepreventing incorporation into virions, avoiding induction of inflammation and APOBEC enzymes, replication in cells with low levels of APOBEC, or replicating in privileged subcellular locations.Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptConclusionsIn this review, we have summarized the extraordinary functions of the APOBEC family of proteins, including participating in antibody diversification, editing of mRNA, and acting as retrovirus and retrotransposon restriction factors. Moreover, mechanisms for inhibition of parasites are diverse, including both deamination-dependent and -independent processes. For their part, viruses have responded with a var.2013; Burns et al., 2013; Roberts et al., 2013). HNSCCs are particularly informative because some are HPV positive and others are HPV negative. Higher overall levels of APOBEC signature mutations are observed in HPV positive cancers (Henderson et al., 2014; Vieira et al., 2014). In addition, hotspots for APOBEC mutagenesis and oncogene activation occur in PIK3CA, which encodes the catalytic subunit of a phosphoinositide-3-kinase that is activated in large proportions of cervical and HNSCCs (Henderson et al., 2014). These hypermutations are most likely due to A3B, and possibly A3A, because these are the only family members induced by HPV infection (Vieira et al., 2014; Warren et al., 2015). Thus, it is tempting to speculate that cancer mutagenesis may be the result of collateral DNA damage of an antiviral response to HPV infection. DNA viruses that infect B cells also might be expected to be inhibited by AID since this family member is activated in the germinal centers to trigger adaptive responses to infection. In addition, AID can be activated in non-B-cells that normally lack AID expression by pathogen expression (Gourzi et al., 2006, 2007). Such viruses have been shown to inhibit AID function through mechanisms distinct from those described for retroviruses. EpsteinBarr virus (EBV) is a herpes virus (double-stranded DNA) that replicates in B cells. This virus antagonizes the effects of AID by upregulation of a host regulatory microRNA (miR-155) and the latency-associated protein EBNA2 (Tobollik et al., 2006). Kaposi’s sarcoma herpes virus (KSHV) also infects B cells (Mesri et al., 1996), and infection of tonsillar B cells upregulates AID (Bekerman et al., 2013). KSHV often maintains its genome in a latent state, which requires the expression of four proteins and 12 micro RNAs (Cai et al., 2005; Dittmer et al., 1998; Pfeffer et al., 2005; Samols et al., 2005). Latency prevents viral DNA replication and associated AID damage, but AID expression activates KSHV lytic replication and loss of infectivity (Bekerman et al., 2013). To antagonize AID, KSHV encodes two different miRs that bind to the 3 UTR of AID mRNA. Binding of viral miRs at several different sites is believed to block translation of AID and triggering of the innate immune response to KSHV (Bekerman et al., 2013). Not all DNA viruses have been shown to be susceptible to APOBEC-mediated restriction. Vaccinia virus does not appear to be inhibited by APOBEC family members, perhaps due to the sequestration of its replication complex in cytoplasmic bodies (Kremer et al., 2006). Therefore, DNA viruses may avoid APOBEC-mediated restriction by encoding an inhibitor,Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptVirology. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 May 01.Harris and DudleyPagepreventing incorporation into virions, avoiding induction of inflammation and APOBEC enzymes, replication in cells with low levels of APOBEC, or replicating in privileged subcellular locations.Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptConclusionsIn this review, we have summarized the extraordinary functions of the APOBEC family of proteins, including participating in antibody diversification, editing of mRNA, and acting as retrovirus and retrotransposon restriction factors. Moreover, mechanisms for inhibition of parasites are diverse, including both deamination-dependent and -independent processes. For their part, viruses have responded with a var.